Warschauer

**Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide** MARK WARSCHAUER, MICHELE KNOBEL, and LEEANN STONE toc Group: Sisters of Science Kelli Deltondo Lauren Foster Jill Morgan Julie West Vanessa Morales

=Overview= This paper is examining how technology is used in classrooms and how prepared students are for university education based on their technology experiences. The authors were interested in technological inequality between high and low socioeconomic status (SES) schools. Past studies focused on availability of technology, but in recent years the gap between technology access in high and low SES schools has been closing. Now the more important question is “How is technology being utilized in the classroom?” Past research found that in low SES schools technology tends to be used for remedial or vocational uses such as math drills, while high SES schools used technology for more academic uses such as internet research and science simulations. The differences in use of technology in schools could be contributing to a lack of equity despite the more equitable distribution of technology across schools.

IMAGE 1: Low SES schools tend to use educational technology to practice basic skills and drill. An example of this would be the Math Magic App available from Apple. 

IMAGE 2: High SES schools tend to use more academic technology such as this simulation from PHET which allows the user to explore an atom and learn about different elements. 

=Methods= In order to investigate availability and access to new technologies within California public high schools and explore how this technology access varies across schools, communities, and student populations in terms of academic preparation for college the researchers conducted qualitative surveys including field based observations, interviews, questionnaires, artifact collection, and collected data on available equipment and demographics. Data was collected from 64 classrooms in 8 schools over 7 months in 2001-2002 school year. Participating schools included 5 low socioeconomic status schools and 3 high socioeconomic status schools. The average characteristics of the low SES versus high SES schools are summarized in Image 3. Table 1 provides additional information about the individual school sites.

Image 3 



 Each school was analyzed at the teacher/classroom level and the school-wide level in order to understand how technology was being used at an instructional level as well as to observe patterns of access and use across schools. A total of <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">64 teachers of science, math, language arts, and social studies and their students participated. At least 1 teacher for every subject area participated at each school site. Research consisted of:
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Data collection over 5-15 days at each school site.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Observation of two 50 minute instructional periods per teacher.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Adult interviews lasting 50-90 minutes over one or two days.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Individual teacher interviews were conducted with all participating teachers.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">At least one administrator interview per school site was conducted.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Students in one period of each teacher’s class completed surveys about demographics and how technology was used in the school.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Small groups of students were interviewed for 30 minutes about how they used computers outside of school, how computers enhanced their learning, and what they wanted to do after graduation. (Interviews only occurred in 6 out of 8 schools due to time constraints)
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Technology artifacts were also collected for analysis. Artifacts included school technology policies, school technology grant proposals, teacher websites, examples of student work, etc.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Once the information was gathered, researchers performed pattern matching, domain analysis, content analysis, and linguistic analysis of the data collected. Researchers independently analyzed findings, then compared data together to ensure reliability. Two researchers completed the majority of the analysis.

=<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Findings =

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The number of computers per student in high-SES schools and low-SES schools is comparable, averaging about 3.3 to 7.8 students per computer. In fact, in this study, there was a slightly better ratio of students to computers in the low-SES schools. However the use of the computers differed between the two categories.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The science domains had the most similar uses for computers, where students used computers for simulations, data analysis, and PowerPoint presentations. However, the other three domains (Language Arts, Mathematics, and Social Science) had varied uses, as displayed in the table below. This could be primarily attributed to the course offerings, for example a high-SES school might use computers for more advanced statistical modelling than a low-SES class, because that high-SES school offers AP Statistics. <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden;">

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">The remainder of the paper breaks down the study to analyze three patterns of technology access and use: performativity, workability, and complexity.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Performativity
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">In the context of our classrooms, performativity refers situations in which teachers focus on the completion of the tasks, and do not pay adequate attention to the learning goals. There is too much focus on using the technology as the end goal, and not enough focus on the content-area learning goals.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Performativity in a low SES school:
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Students performed Internet-Based research with little to no attention to the relevance or validity of sources chosen.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Information was copied and pasted into a Word Doc (per the teacher’s instructions). Not enough attention went to the content that was found through the research.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Performativity at a high SES school:
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">A powerpoint presentation assignment was given by a science teacher. The presentation grade was based partially on how many different fonts, colors, and animations the presentation included.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The focus was on student mastery of the powerpoint program rather than on the production of an effective presentation.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Effects of Performativity on low SES students
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Teachers put more focus on teaching basic computer tasks in class because of the concern that students do not have computer access at home.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Fluency in a particular software (such as PPT) is not likely to improve their chances for success in higher education and the workforce

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Image 4 <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Workability
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The main concern was to what extent does technology work for educational purposes, teaching and learning.


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">High SES and Low SES:


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Many teachers reported that the technology failed when during the lessons.


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Technology doubled their work because they had to have a back up plan (lesson).

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Workability in High SES School Sites
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Dalea
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Some classrooms had at least two computers and others had enough for every student.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">They had 12 technology facilitators from different subjects who had been through extensive training that worked only at this school.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The site hired full time media specialist who were not teaching to provide technical support for teachers.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">They had an interconnected network of experts which was vital to the integration of technology.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Workability in Low SES School Sites


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Bergenia
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">They had the same ratio of computer access for students as Dalea.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">They struggled as they integrated technology in the classroom.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">A diverse group of people managed the computer labs and there was poor communication with one another.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">They hired staff to oversee the computer labs and did not seem familiar with the software that was available.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">It was difficult for teachers to reserve the lab.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">This site was at a disadvantage because they did not learn how to integrate technology efficiently.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Overall, the high SES school had more support and less problems integrating technology. They had invested more money on professional development for the technology support that teachers would need. They had established a network of technicians.

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Complexity
Image 5

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Even when technology is available, teachers are still finding it a complex situation to actually integrate the technology into the classroom
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">High stakes testing
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Teachers felt pressure to prepare students for testing (especially in low SES schools where test scores are typically lower), but felt torn between preparing students for testing and using innovative strategies that involve technology
 * Time is an issue. Teachers are being pushed to meet content standards today. In the past, this was not an issue. If technology was being pushed, teachers would change plans around or skip certain things in order to incorporate technology.
 * Low SES schools spend more time on test preparation than do high SES schools.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Differential Home Computer Access There were big differences in the amount of students who had home computer access between all of the schools represented in the study:
 * High SES Schools that were surveyed...
 * Average of 99% of students had computer access and 97% had internet access -
 * Low SES Schools that were surveyed...
 * Average of 82% of students had computer access and 72% had internet access
 * In high SES schools, because so many of their students had computer access at home...
 * Teachers felt that they did not have to spend time on basic computer skills during class time and were able to focus more on material.
 * One teacher has all of their notes online and students are expected to access that at home so they can spend class time working on multimedia production.
 * In low SES schools, teachers underestimate how many of their students have access to computers at home.
 * These teachers avoid giving homework assignments that require computer access - It is even an unwritten rule in many of the schools that are surveyed (to avoid using computer-based homework).
 * Tend to focus on non-academic computer time, such as inputting text.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">English Language Learners
 * There was a difference in the number of English Language Learners in the schools that were surveyed:
 * High SES schools - roughly 10%
 * Low SES schools - about 30% and includes classes of ELLs with mixed abilities
 * Teachers found that activities you could do with English proficient students were not effective with English-limited students. Challenges faced when ELLs are working on the computer for research and writing activities:
 * Difficulties with spelling, grammar and vocabulary
 * Difficulties teachers found when teaching ELLs to use the internet
 * Typing in URLs correctly
 * Searching for terms correctly
 * Interpreting internet results properly.
 * Microsoft Office Word Spell Check - Many ELL students solely rely on spelling and grammar check without foundational understanding of it and their papers turn out “unintelligible”

=<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Discussion = <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Despite the comparable levels of access to technology, evidence suggests that this technology is amplifying existing forms of inequality. Placing technology and internet access in low-SES schools does very little to address the challenges that these schools are facing. Technology requires human support systems to help in its appropriate and effective use.

<span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">Image 6 <span style="font-family: Verdana,Geneva,sans-serif;">

=<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 19px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Conclusions =

<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">In this study issues of workability, complexity, and performativity were present in all schools, but in different ways. Many of the teachers at the low SES schools believed that their students had much less access to computers at home than the surveys suggested. The variation in technology instruction between high SES and low SES schools has more to do with social issues, and the perception of the staff than the actual access to technology.


 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Policy makers need a three pronged approach:
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">First, they need to ensure that all schools (particularly low SES) have highly qualified and experienced teachers and administrators.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Second, teachers need to move away from teaching mastery of software programs, and toward the use of technology to further research and inquiry skills.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Finally, schools need to focus on providing equal access to technology, and encouraging students to use the public resources. Expectations should not be lowered because of a perceived lack of access to technology by students.

=Citations= Warschauer, M., Knobel, M., & Stone, L. (2004). Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide. Educational Policy, Volume 18 (Issue 4), 562-588.

Table 1: Warschauer, M., Knobel, M., & Stone, L. (2004). Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide. Educational Policy, Volume 18 (Issue 4), 567.

Table 3: Warschauer, M., Knobel, M., & Stone, L. (2004). Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide. Educational Policy, Volume 18 (Issue 4), 573.

Image 1: Dave Banks (April 28, 2009). 5 Basic Math Apps for the iphone and Your Kids [image file]. Retrieved from []

Image 2: National Science Foundation (July 7, 2013). Discoveries: PhET Simulations Provide Interactive Learning Tools [image file]. Retrieved from []

Image 4:Bill Ferriter (July 6, 2013). Plug US In on Flickr. Retrieved from: http://www.flickr.com/photos/plugusin/sets/72157625087347140/page2/

Image 5: Hubpages. (July 2009). Retreived from: @http://whitney05.hubpages.com/hub/Technology-Illiterate-in-Todays-Society

Image 6: Peter DeTinda (October 17, 2010). Educational Technology Cartoon [image file]. Retrieved from: http://mrstooshnov.wordpress.com/2010/10/17/educational-technology-cartoon/